The journey is not yet finished (131)

President   Choummaly Sayasone

The journey is not yet finished (131)

(Part one hundred and thirty-one, Depok, West Java, Indonesia, October 1, 2014, 3:27 pm)

Laos one of the countries members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is now to continoe to build their countries post-conflict countries, among others in the field of mass media.

The history of media in post-colonial Asia is very different from that of the developed western nations. In the Southeast Asian region, in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, the history of the mass media is related to a struggle against colonialism (Atkins 1995). While analysing the Indonesian media, Sen and Hill state: 'during the early years of independence the press was dubbed by President Sukarno a tool of the Revolution, responsible for energising and mobilising public opinion' (2000, p.52). Similarly in Laos the Press and radio developed as partisan political organs, fighting for independence.

In the 1940s, patriotic leaflets directed against the French and Japanese were produced by Kaysone Phomvihane and Sisana Sisane (Viengsavanh 2000). On 15 August 1945 the Japanese surrendered and their troops and administrators left Laos. Seizing this opportunity, on 12 October 1945 the Lao Issara (Lao Freedom) Government was established and declared independence from the French. Leaflets in both Lao and French with the flag of the Lao People's Democratic Republic were distributed in Vientiane, Savannakhet and other cities to motivate the people to fight for independence. Answering a journalist in the Lao Mass Media magazine, Sisana Sisane (1997, p.14) said: 'in August 1945, the patriotic force had an opportunity to publish news bulletins using typewriters and gestetner machines'.

After the defeat of Germany and Japan, the French returned to Laos in 1946. The Lao Issara (Lao Freedom) was unable to fight against the French forces and had to be in exile. Even though the Lao Issara were in exile, they continued publishing news bulletins to motivate the people to fight against colonialism. Sisana Sisane (1997, p.14) states: 'While being unable to fight against the French, the revolutionary side escaped to Thailand and Vietnam and continued publishing their news bulletins irregularly due to lack of paper'.

On 13 August 1950, in the northern part of Laos, the Congress of the Neo Lao Totane (Lao Resistance Front) established a quarterly two-page newspaper Issara (Freedom), the voice of the Neo Lao Issara (Lao Freedom) and printed 200 copies using a stone plate (Viengsavanh 2000). The first issue published the declaration and policy of the Neo Lao Issara (the former name of the Pathet Lao), encouraging the people to participate in a struggle for the country's liberation. It also carried the flag of the Lao People's Democratic Republic and pictures of the Lao Resistance Government led by Prince Souphanouvong. People swapped newspapers or passed on news to those who did not have opportunities to read (Duanesavanh 2000).

According to Devillers (1970, pp.41-42), in September 1950 the Patheth Lao Government settled in Sam Neua (now Huaphanh province, the northern part of Laos) 'and was able to expand its guerrilla activity along the entire Vietnamese border, from Phongsaly in the north to the Bolovens Plateau in the south. And, in the northeast, a liberated zone was taking shape.' The Issara newspaper took on the responsibility to inform the people about battles for independence.

Lao Map

After a long struggle by the Lao people for independence and the military defeat of the French in Dien Bien Phu in Vietnam, the independence of Laos was recognised by the Geneva Agreement on Indochina in 1954. Despite the agreement, the Americans stepped into Laos to replace the French and Laos became a battlefield in the second Indochina war. Dommen says that: 'When the bombing finally halted in 1973, U.S. aircraft had drooped 2,092,900 tons (1,898,260 metric tons) of bombs on Laos, approximately the total tonnage dropped by U.S. air forces during all of World War II in both the European and Pacific theatres' (1985, p.90). More than two tonnes of U.S bombs per inhabitant were dropped in the liberated zone (Pathet Lao zone). At this time the mass media of Pathet Lao was in full swing carrying the message of liberation and re-unification of the country. Halpern states: 'the Pathet Lao propagandist knows how to present himself (sic) as a friend who helps and advises and works with his own hands. He acts disinterestedly, shows honesty and enthusiasm and knows how to get along with a minimum of comfort' (1964, p.16).

An important event, an attempt for the re-unification of the country occurred in 1957 when the Pathet Lao and the Vientiane regime (the Royal Lao Government) signed the Vientiane Agreement, which encouraged the formation of a Coalition Government, including the Left and the Right (Ackland 1970). The Lao Haksat newspaper was able to operate in Vientiane in support of the Neo Lao Haksat (Pathet Lao) leaders in the national election in May 1958 and was published weekly with a circulation of about 10,000 copies in Lao (LeBar & Suddard 1960). As a result of the national election, the Neo Lao Haksat (the Pathet Lao) and its ally the Santiphab (Peace) party obtained more seats. Dommen says: 'Prince Souphanouvong, the leader of the Pathet Lao received more votes than any candidate' (1985, p.56).

The Neo Lao Haksat (Pathet Lao) dominated in the National Assembly and this made the CIA-backed right wing unhappy. Therefore, they established the Committee for the Defence of the National Interest (CDNI) on June 1958 to support Phoui Sananikone in forming a government in August in 1958 with the exclusion of the Neo Lao Haksat (Pathet Lao). In addition, they arrested and imprisoned Prince Souphanouvong and other Neo Lao Haksat leaders, including Khamphai Boupha, the Director General of the Lao Haksat newspaper, and Sisana Sisane (Duanesavanh 2000). They also banned the Lao Haksat newspaper and closed its printing house in Vientiane. There were no more negotiations with the Left. 'Just as significantly, collapse of the First Coalition marked both a victory for the United States, and shift in power from the Lao National Assembly to the U.S Embassy' (Stuart-Fox 1997, p.104).

A new twist to the political scene took place, when the police of the Vientiane regime helped Prince Souphanouvong and other Pathet Lao leaders escape from jail on 24 May 1960 (Duanesavanh 2000). Leaving the Lao Haksat newspaper and its printing press in Vientiane, like others, Sisana Sisane escaped from jail and reached the liberated zone (the Pathet Lao zone), Samnua, Houphanh province and joined the staff of the Pathet Lao mass media, many of whom did not join the Coalition Government in Vientiane.

When the newspaper was unable to operate, the radio was only means to inform the people about revolution and the country liberation. Therefore, under the supervision of Prince Souk Vongsak and Khamtay Siphandone, the first Pathet Lao radio station with a capacity of 500 w was established on 13 August 1960, in Sieng Sua village, Viengsay district, in the northern province of Houaphanh, the liberated zone. Sisana Sisane became its Director General in 1961 (Duanesavanh 2000). In its early stages, it had one tape recorder, an electric generator and only six staff, three news reporters and three technicians. In the 1960s, with support from China and Vietnam, the station improved its capacity from 500 w to 15 Kw and its broadcasts were able to reach the majority of the territory (Inthasay 2000a). The second Pathet Lao radio was established in 1968 in Khangkhay, Xieng Khuang province, the liberated zone.

Lao People

In order to collect, process and supply news to the Pathet Lao radio, the Lao Haksat newspaper and mouthpieces of the revolutionary movement, Khaosane Pathet Lao (KPL), the Lao News Agency was established on January 6, 1968 in Viengsay, northern Houaphanh province, in accordance with a decision of the President of the Central Neo Lao Haksat (Lao Patriotic Front). Its first director was Sisana Sisane.Then, it was a small news agency, staffed with only a dozen of reporters and technicians. To reach the outside world, the KPL also transmitted news in English through short wave radio.

1975 saw changes in the media, when the country was liberated and the Lao People's Democratic republic was established. The media has grown rapidly and continued to participate in the country development and national security protection. In 1976 there were only four publications with a total circulation of around 1,665,000 copies (National Statistical Centre. Lao. 2000): news bulletins of the Lao News Agency (KPL), the daily Siang Pasason, Vientiane Mai, and Kongthap (the Army) newspapers. With a population of 2,886,000, this is approximately one copy per three persons. There were eight radio stations - one National Radio Station in the capital city of Vientiane and seven local ones in Champasack, Savannakhet, Luang Phrabang, Xieng Khuang, Huaphanh, Oudomsay provinces and the Vientiane municipality.

The New Economic Mechanism (NEM) introduced in 1986 accelerated publication and the print media increased their products rapidly. As the demand for newspapers and magazines increased, so did circulations. Transportation to provincial cities and many rural towns became possible and thus helped print media products from the capital to reach more readers. The number of newspapers, magazines and news bulletins increased from thirteen in 1985 to fifty three in 2000. In 2000, the Lao PDR had fifty three publications, including two daily and six weekly newspapers. Total circulation of newspapers rose from 9,855,000 copies in 1985 to 13,400,000 in 2000, an average of three copies per person (Pasason 11 Oct. 2000, p.1). Total journal circulations increased from 28,000 copies in 1980 to 154,000 in 2000. The number of printing houses grew from twenty seven in 1990 to thirty four in 2000 and amounts of imported paper, including newsprint, increased from 1077 tonnes in 1985 to 1245 in 1998 (National Statistical Centre. Lao. 2000, p.121).

Radio and television networks developed and there has been rapid growth in the number of radio and television sets. The number of radio stations rose from nine in 1985 to twenty in 2002 and announcement systems increased from 152 in 1985 to 280 in 1990. In 1983 Laos had only one television station but within nineteen years this figure has jumped to twenty nine (Mass Media Department. Lao. 2002).

Lao People

Satellite receiving dishes have been legally used in Laos. Quite recently, the Ministry of Information and Culture of the Lao PDR co-operated with a Chinese cable TV company to establish a cable TV in Laos, enabling Lao audiences to watch more foreign television programmes. Thus today, people with access to cable TV living in the centre of Vientiane are able to watch up to 30 foreign television channels, including BBC, CNN, CNBC, Worldnet, ABC Asia Pacific, TV5 (France), DW (Germany), RAI (Italy), MTV, Startsport, Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Cambodian, Korean and other channels.

Today the Lao PDR has three daily newspapers with circulation of 11,950 copies, the Pasason, the Pathet Lao and the Vientiane Mai, which provide news, information, entertainments, advertisements, sport etc to the people. In addition, there are two foreign language newspapers with circulation of 4,000 copies: Vientiane Times, twice weekly English language newspaper and Le Renouvateur, weekly French language newspaper.

The main news producer for newspapers, the radio and television is the Khaosane Pathet Lao (KPL), the Lao News Agency. It produces daily 324 copies of news bulletins in Lao, 304 in French and 536 in English (Ministry of Information and Culture. Lao. 2000d). Circulations vary in different period, depending on readers' demands. In 1992, the KPL was able to publish 84,360 news bulletins in Lao, 125,666 in English and 84,360 in French. By 1996, news bulletins in Lao had increased slightly to 88,512 copies, in English to 176,592 and in French to 99,124 copies (Lao News Agency KPL 1996, p 3). KPL news in Lao, French and English is now available in http://www.kplnet.net or through other websites,http://www.Vientianetimes.gov.la,http://www.laoembassy.com or http://www.laolink.com .

People now have greater access to the mass media than before. As the demand for newspapers and magazines increased, so did circulations. Transportation to provincial cities and many rural towns became possible and thus helped print media products from the capital to reach more readers. Radio and television networks developed and there has been rapid growth in the number of radio and television sets since 1985.

Besides the development of local media, there has also been a greater flow from abroad. Foreign newspapers and magazines have appeared in towns where there is reader demand and satellite dishes have appeared not only in Vientiane, but also in remote and mountainous areas. In addition, the public has access to the Internet and Internet caf?s have been established in big cities and also in rural towns. Towards the end of the 1990s the Lao Government started its own news websites (such as http://www.kplnet.net and http://www.vientianetimes.gov.la) to provide readers with news and information.

In fact, in Laos the number of people who are able to access to the Internet is minuscule. They are government officials, media people, business people, intellectuals and university students, who surf for news and information, often from Internet cafes. The Lao Government does not prevent people from accessing foreign media.

The mass media in the period 1986-2000 has grown both in quality and in the variety of texts it carries. Both the Government's own policy of economic reform and the inability to close off the transport of global media products across borders suggest that the Lao media will continue to change to attract more audiences.

Lao Religion

By continuing the policy of reform, a goal has been set to reach an economic growth rate of at least seven percent per year during the period 2001-2010. The expected continuing economic growth will help the Government to invest more in all sectors, including the mass media. Investment in the mass media and culture has increased from two billion Kip (1994-1995) to forty nine billion Kip for the 1999-2000 period (National Statistical Centre. Lao. 2000). It is projected that the Government will continue to invest 52.03 billion Kip (US$1.00 = 10,330 Kip on 21/08/02), approximately 2.6 % of State budget in 2000-2001 (State Planning Committee. Lao. 2000). There are plans to improve and upgrade the quality of radio and television broadcasts, and of newspapers and magazines to extend media's reach throughout the whole population (Phommachanh 1997).

Besides government investment, the mass media is also encouraged to obtain income from other sources. Decree No 36 on Increasing the Party Leadership and State Management in the Mass Media in the New Period, which was adopted by the Party Central Political Bureau on 19 June 1993, indicates that media organizations must find ways to earn income to meet their own expenditure. Since then the media have taken new steps, such as selling papers at a profit and accepting advertising as ways to earn income. There is a conviction within the industry that competition between media may also generate future growth.

The current government policy is based on the assumption that the combination of government investment and the earnings of media organizations will accelerate growth in the mass media, increasing their number and improving the quality of radio and television programmes and the Press. In addition, the technical and professional bases of the mass media are expected to be upgraded.

Another factor which will encourage the Lao mass media to change is the national infrastructure. Laos is in the centre of the Indochina peninsula, sharing borders with China in the north, Burma in the northwest, Thailand in the west, Cambodia in the south, and Vietnam in the east. Laos is thus at the cross-roads between countries in the region. The Government has tried to change its status from a land-locked to a land-linked country, by constructing new roads, upgrading roads linking neighbouring countries and building bridges across the Mekong river. Khamtay Siphandone, the President of the Lao PDR urges developing infrastructure, stating: 'in the years to come, we should continue to build, improve and expand some key economic structures such as national highways, highways linking the sub-region and important local roads, bridges, hydropower plants and a national electricity transmission network, modern communication systems…, railways, airports, expansion of airline routes, improvement of water transport and others…'(2001, p.5).

The Government aims to continue this policy and in 2000-2001 it will invest 753. 66 billion Kip (about 37.6 % of State investment) in transportation, a vast amount compared to expenditure in most other sectors (State Planning Committee. Lao. 2000). Route No 13 through the country from Cambodia to China has been improved, Route (Songmek-Wernkham) in Champasak province linking Thailand and Cambodia has been completed and the most strategic Route No 9 to the sea in Vietnam, destroyed during the Indochina war, was rebuilt after the establishment of the Lao PDR in 1975 with the cooperation of the former Soviet Union, Vietnam and the Eastern Block. However, as it was in poor condition, it has been revitalised with Japanese aid and a loan from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) (Vientiane Mai 10 Jul 2000, p.3). A railway link from Vientiane (Laos) to Nong Khai (Thailand) is planned in the near future.

Besides roads linking Laos and neighbouring countries, bridges across the Mekong river have also been constructed. The first built in 1994 with Australian aid links Laos and Thailand. The second was completed on 2 August 2000 in the southern province of Champasack with Japanese aid. A third bridge is on the focus to link Savanakhet in Laos and Mukhdaharn in Thailand. Anderson (1998, p.29) has predicted that Lao-Vietnam trade and transit trade through Laos would grow when the Mekong bridge and road link to Vietnam and Thailand across southern Laos were completed.

Good roads will clearly help the transport of print material. Media organizations located in Vientiane will have more potential to send their products to provinces by road. Foreign print media brought from Thailand, Vietnam and China will also flow more easily into Laos. Television receivers, radio sets, satellite dishes, computers, newsprint and other media goods are currently being imported through Thailand, China and Vietnam, transported mainly by road, over the Friendship Bridge across the Mekong river from Nongkhai (Thailand) to Vientiane (Laos).

Cultural in Lao

Besides transportation, improved telecommunications will also accelerate the mass media in Laos. Since 1990 postal and telecommunications services have improved. An advanced and modern telephone system was installed in 1993 and is a part of the project to expand international radio, television broadcasting and the telecommunications system. It is estimated by 2010 the number of telephone lines will rise to 340,000 (five lines per 100 persons) thus encouraging Internet use, not only in Vientiane, but also in remote towns and mountainous areas. The Lao Star Satellite Project (Lao Star Co, Ltd), a joint venture between the Lao Government and the Asia Broadcasting and Communications Network Plc (ABCN), was established in 1995. The US$ 500 million project is designed to improve the country's telecommunications infrastructure and television broadcasting in the country. The Lao Star Project also expects to operate throughout the Asian Region, setting up a multimedia network and providing other forms of digital data communication (Guide to Doing Business in Laos 1998). Although construction of the ground station for the US $ 500 million project commenced in the 1990s about 14 kilometres from the centre of Vientiane, this project stalled due to the Asian economic crisis in 1997.

Change is particularly evident with regard to access of information from the outside world. Faxes are used widely throughout the country in the private and public sectors and international Direct Dialling (IDD) is available from public telephone booths across the country (Uimonen 1999). Improved telecommunications and other factors have dramatically increased the number of domestic and international calls. In 1976, international calls reached only 148,000 minutes, whereas in 2000 this figure rose to 21,038,000 (National Statistical Centre. Lao. 2000).

Education will also be an important social factor to cause the mass media to change because larger numbers of educated people and a higher literacy rate may lead to increased consumption of media products, especially the print media and the Internet. The Government is encouraging people to study and has established new educational institutions. The number of schools, including primary, secondary and high schools rose from 4,527 in 1976 to 8,033 in 1985 and to 10,696 in 2000 and the number of students increased from 584,700 in 1985 to 1,139,900 in 2000. The number of school teachers rose from 13,100 in 1976 to 23,900 in 1985 and to 39,000 in 2000. Apart from school students, the number of tertiary students increased from 500 in 1976 to 5,200 in 1985 and to 8,800 in 2000 (National Statistical Centre. Lao. 2000). In 2001-2005, upgrading the quality of education will be the Government's main focus. The authorities concerned will concentrate on improving curricula and teaching at all levels, from pre-school to university and especially implementing compulsory education for primary school children. Illiteracy eradication will be conducted with vocational training programmes.

As the result of the government policy to remedy foreign language illiteracy, English has become very popular among the public and the younger generation are being encouraged to learn other foreign languages. As they have opened up the country, the Government also encourages Lao officials to study foreign languages so as to expand cooperation with their foreign counterparts.

Lao Communist Troops

Globalisation is a key factor in the transformation of the Lao mass media. Laos is a part of the global society in which 'the unifying forces of modern production, markets, communications and cultural and political modernization interact with many global, regional and local segmentations and differentiations' (Shaw 1994, p.32). The globalisation process has influenced nations throughout the world. International media corporations have encouraged flows of media products world-wide.

Since 1986 when Laos introduced the New Economic Mechanism (NEM) and opened the door to the outside world, media flows and cultural products from abroad have appeared increasingly. The authorities consider they can bring both advantages and disadvantages. Boungnang Vorachit, (now the Prime Minister of Laos) states: 'besides protecting the national culture, we select the best culture in the world to revitalise the Lao culture' (1998, p.4). Khamkhong Kongvongsa, a spokesman of the Ministry of Information and Culture's Mass Media Department said, 'while watching foreign television programmes, the bad comes along with the good' (Magnuson 1998, p.2). It seems to believe that the media flows and foreign cultural products will enrich culture and education in Laos. On the other hand, like many other Asian governments, there are concerns about the effects of some media flows and foreign cultural products, in particular the impact of violent and pornographic content and the capacity of foreign cultures to erode local cultural activities.

Satellite receiving dishes have been legally used in Laos. Quite recently, the Ministry of Information and Culture of the Lao PDR co-operated with a Chinese cable TV company to establish a cable TV in Laos, enabling Lao audiences to watch more foreign television programmes. Even before the coming of cable TV, people living in Vientiane were able to watch some Thai channels, as well as one Vietnamese channel and one French channel, each broadcast from stations built by the Vietnamese and French respectively. Thus today, people with access to cable TV living in the centre of Vientiane are able to watch up to 30 foreign television channels like ABC Asia Pacific, BBC, CNN, HBO, French TV5, German DW, Italian RAI, musical channels MTV, sport channel Starsport and so on.

To date, the number of people who can access the cable TV is small because the company has been in business for only few months. Nevertheless, the number of people who have applied for and are queued up for the cable TV is high, since connection cost is low (1,100,000 Kip = US$ 106.00) compared to cost of a satellite dish at around US$ 600.00) and monthly fees are only 15,000 Kip = US$1.45. Another cable TV owned by a Lao and Thai joint private company is in preparation.

In the 1990s, the Government invested in broadcasting, improving and building new radio and television stations throughout the country. According to the 2000-2005 Information and Culture Plan, the Ministry of Information and Culture (MIC) will provide local media organizations with up-to-date technology, making sure radio and television broadcasts reach most of the country. The MIC will financially support the attempts of several papers to increase number of pages and frequency of publication. For example, the number of pages of the Pasason newspaper will increase from six to eight and foreign language newspapers, the Vientiane Times and Le Renovateur will be published daily.

Vientene city

In the period 2000-2005, the Ministry of Information and Culture will focus on upgrading media content, improving radio and television programmes and the quality of newspapers and magazines. In order to fulfil this task, from the Government's point of view it is important to train media officials in both professional and political matters relating to policy, law and constitution (Ministry of Information and Culture. Lao. 2000b). Training media officials is not a new task. Khamtay Siphandone, the President of the Lao PDR at the Sixth Party Congress in 1996 urged media officials to be properly trained so as to improve the content of the mass media. Foreign aid has also been significant in training Lao media professionals. Many Lao media officials have been sent abroad to learn how to manage media in different societies. The issue of production quality looms large, in particular as the Lao people are exposed to more and more foreign media products

One Lao media industry that has particularly suffered a decline in the context of foreign competition is the film industry, even though Lao cinema was beginning to gain international recognition in the 1990s. For example, Som Ock Southiponh's 1993 documentary Lenetene's Spinning Tops won a production grant of 40,000 French Francs in a contest held by Francophone, the international society of French-speaking nations, and the feature film Bua Deng (Red Lotus) gained a special jury prize at the first Southeast Asian Film Festival in Cambodia in 1997 (Gerow, 1999). This film had been produced in 1987 and the industry had been in decline since the 1980s. Laos has not produced a single feature since 1989.

The mass media remains an important tool to motivate the public, helping the country move from a subsistence economy to a market economy, and helping to attract foreign cooperation and investment. Information, training, and motivating people remain the main strategic task. The Lao People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee promulgated Decree No 36 in 1993 on Increasing Party Leadership and State Management in the Mass Media, in the New Period (Politburo. Lao. 1993). It lays down the main guidelines for the mass media in the period of reform. It claims that the mass media is a sharp tool of the Party and Government, being the tribune for people's expression and the mediating centre between the masses and the Party, and urges leading officials to take on the responsibility to guide and assist the mass media to fulfil its duty correctly and successfully.

Lao War

Several leading Party and Government officials confirm the main duty of the mass media during the reform policy; for example, Nouhak Phoumsavanh, the former President of the Lao PDR and Advisor to the Lao People's Revolutionary Party states: 'the Party and State have always realised and attached importance to the propagation of information as a sharp means of the Party, an instrument in the struggle for lobbying, presenting the political line and policies and defending the Party line. The mass media at all times are involved in the Party strategy and tactics' (KPL News Bulletin 6 May. 1999, p.1). Khamtay Siphandone, the President of the Lao PDR also confirmed that information and mass media are important vehicles to inform both the domestic and external public about the policies of the Party and Government (1996, p.26).

The Lao Journalists' Association also took steps in urging journalists to serve the country and people, being Party and Government announcers, disseminating policies and motivating the people to implement two strategic tasks: development and the country's security and protection (Lao Mass Media 1997, vol 1, no 1, p. 4).

Laos

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lao People's Democratic Republic

ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ

Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao

         

Flag  Emblem

Motto: ສັນຕິພາບ ເອກະລາດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ເອກະພາບ ວັດທະນາຖາວອນ

"Peace, independence, democracy, unity and prosperity"

Anthem: Pheng Xat Lao

Lao National Anthem

MENU0:00

Location of  Laos  (green)in ASEAN  (dark grey)  –  [Legend]

Location of  Laos  (green)

in ASEAN  (dark grey)  –  [Legend]

Capital

and largest city   Vientiane

17°58′N 102°36′E

Official languages       Lao

Recognised national languages   French

Spoken languages     

Thai Hmong Khmu

Ethnic groups (2005[1])       

55% Lao

11% Khmu

8% Hmong

26% othersa

Demonym Laotian

Lao

Government       Single-party socialist republic

 -       President   Choummaly Sayasone

 -       Prime Minister    Thongsing Thammavong

 -       President of the

National Assembly      Pany Yathotu

 -       President of

Construction       Sisavath Keobounphanh

Legislature          National Assembly

Formation

 -       Kingdom of Lan Xang 1354–1707

 -       Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak          1707–1778

 -       Vassal of Thonburi and Siam        1778–893

 -       War of Succession      1826–8

 -       French Indochina        1893–1949

 -       Independence from France 19 July 1949

 -       Declared Independence      22 October 1953

Area

 -       Total 236,800 km2 (84th)

91,428.991 sq mi

 -       Water (%)  2

Population

 -       2013 estimate    6,695,166[2] (104th)

 -       1995 census      4,574,848

 -       Density      26.7/km2 (177th)

69.2/sq mi

GDP (PPP)         2013 estimate

 -       Total $20.78 billion[3]

 -       Per capita  $3,100[3]

GDP (nominal)   2013 estimate

 -       Total $11.14 billion[3]

 -       Per capita  $1,646[3]

Gini (2008)          36.7[4]

medium

HDI (2013) Steady 0.569[5]

medium · 139th

Currency   Kip (LAK)

Time zone (UTC+7)

Drives on the      right

Calling code       +856

ISO 3166 code   LA

Internet TLD       .la

a.      Including over 100 smaller ethnic groups.

          You may need rendering support to display the Lao text in this article correctly.

Laos ((Listeni/ˈlaʊs/, /ˈlɑː.ɒs/, /ˈlɑː.oʊs/, or /ˈleɪ.ɒs/)[6][7][8] Lao Language: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, pronounced [sǎː.tʰáː.laʔ.naʔ.lat páʔ.sáː.tʰiʔ.páʔ.tàj páʔ.sáː.són.láːw] Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao), (French: République démocratique populaire lao), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and People's Republic of China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south, and Thailand to the west. Its population was estimated to be around 6.5 million in 2012.[2]

A third of the population of Laos live below the international poverty line which means living on less than US$1.25 per day.[9] Laos is a low income economy, with one of the lowest annual incomes in the world. In 2013, Laos ranked the 138th place (tied with Cambodia) on the Human Development Index (HDI), indicating that Laos currently only has lower medium to low development.[10] According to the Global Hunger Index, Laos currently ranks as the 25th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 56 nations with the worst hunger situation(s) in the world.[11] Laos has had a poor human rights record most particularly dealing with the nation's acts of genocide being committed towards its Hmong population.

Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang, which existed from the 14th to the 18th century when it split into three separate kingdoms. In 1893, it became a French protectorate, with the three kingdoms, Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak, uniting to form what is now known as Laos. It briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation, but returned to French rule until it was granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a long civil war ended the monarchy, when the Communist Pathet Lao movement came to power in 1975.

Laos is a single-party socialist republic. It espouses Marxism and is governed by a single party communist politburo dominated by military generals. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnam People's Army continue to have significant influence in Laos. The capital city is Vientiane. Other large cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse. The official language is Lao. Laos is a multi-ethnic country with the politically and culturally dominant Lao people making up approximately 60% of the population, mostly in the lowlands. Various Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other indigenous hill tribes, accounting for 40% of the population, live in the foothills and mountains. Laos' strategy for development is based on generating electricity from its rivers and selling the power to its neighbours, namely Thailand, China, and Vietnam.[12] Its economy is accelerating rapidly with the demands for its metals.[13]

It is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), East Asia Summit and La Francophonie. Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1997, and on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership.[14]

Etymology[edit]

In the Lao language, the country's name is "Muang Lao" (ເມືອງລາວ) or "Pathet Lao" (ປະເທດລາວ), both of which literally mean "Lao Country".[15] The French, who united the three separate Lao kingdoms in French Indochina in 1893, named the country as the plural of the dominant and most common ethnic group (in French, the final "s" at the end of a word is usually silent, thus it would also be pronounced "Lao").[16]

History[edit]

Main article: History of Laos

Early history[edit]

In 2009 an ancient human skull was recovered from the Tam Pa Ling cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos; the skull is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia.[17] Archaeological evidence suggests agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC. Burial jars and other kinds of sepulchers suggest a complex society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC, and iron tools were known from 700 BC. The proto-historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations. From the fourth to the eighth century, communities along the Mekong River began to form into townships called muang.[18]

Lan Xang[edit]

Main article: Lan Xang

Pha That Luang in Vientiane is the national symbol of Laos.

Statue of Fa Ngum, founder of the Lan Xang kingdom

Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang (Million Elephants), founded in the 14th century, by a Lao prince Fa Ngum, who with 10,000 Khmer troops, took over Vientiane. Ngum was descended from a long line of Lao kings, tracing back to Khoun Boulom. He made Theravada Buddhism the state religion and Lan Xang prospered. Within 20 years of its formation, the kingdom expanded eastward to Champa and along the Annamite mountains in Vietnam. His ministers, unable to tolerate his ruthlessness, forced him into exile to the present-day Thai province of Nan in 1373,[19] where he died. Fa Ngum's eldest son, Oun Heuan, came to the throne under the name Samsenthai and reigned for 43 years. During his reign, Lan Xang became an important trade centre. After his death in 1421, Lan Xang collapsed into warring factions for the next 100 years.

In 1520, Photisarath came to the throne and moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion. Setthathirat became king in 1548, after his father was killed, and ordered the construction of what would become the symbol of Laos, That Luang. Setthathirat disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition into Cambodia and Lan Xang began to rapidly decline. It was not until 1637, when Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne, that Lan Xang would further expand its frontiers. His reign is often regarded as Laos's golden age. When he died, leaving Lan Xang without an heir, the kingdom divided into three principalities. Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Phrabang, while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty.

Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang. Under Vietnamese pressure, he rebelled against the Siamese. The rebellion failed and Vientiane was ransacked.[20] Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died.

A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale".[21]

French Laos[edit]

French Laos

Protectorat français du Laos

Monarchy, Protectorate of France, constituent of French Indochina

←

←

←

1893–1953         →

         

Flag  Royal Arms

Capital       Vientiane (official), Luang Prabang (ceremonial)

Languages         French (official), Lao

Religion     Theravada Buddhism, Roman Catholicism

Political structure         Monarchy, Protectorate of France, constituent of French Indochina

King 

 -       1868-1895 Oun Kham (first)

 -       1904-1954 Sisavang Vong (last)

Historical era      New Imperialism

 -       Protectorate established      1893

 -       Kingdom of Laos proclaimed        11 May 1947

 -       Independence    9 November 1953

 -       Geneva Conference   21 July 1954

Main article: History of Laos to 1945

In the late 19th century, Luang Prabang was ransacked by the Chinese Black Flag Army.[22] France rescued King Oun Kham and added Luang Phrabang to the 'Protectorate' of French Indochina. Shortly after, the Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were also added to the protectorate. King Sisavang Vong of Luang Phrabang became ruler of a unified Laos and Vientiane once again became the capital. Laos never had any importance for France[23] other than as a buffer state between British-influenced Thailand and the more economically important Annam and Tonkin. During their rule, the French introduced the corvee, a system that forced every male Lao to contribute 10 days of manual labour per year to the colonial government. Laos produced tin, rubber, and coffee, but never accounted for more than 1% of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos.[24] Most of the French who came to Laos as officials, settlers or missionaries developed a strong affection for the country and its people, and many devoted decades to what they saw as bettering the lives of the Lao. Some took Lao wives, learned the language, became Buddhists and "went native" - something more acceptable in the French Empire than in the British. With the racial attitudes typical of Europeans at this time, however, they tended to classify the Lao as gentle, amiable, childlike, naive and lazy, regarding them with what one writer called "a mixture of affection and exasperation."

Prince Phetsarath declared Laos' independence on 12 October 1945, but the French under Charles de Gaulle re-asserted control. In 1950 Laos was granted semi-autonomy as an "associated state" within the French Union. France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953, when Laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy.

Independence[edit]

King Sisavang Vong of Laos

Main articles: Kingdom of Laos and Laotian Civil War

Pathet Lao soldiers in Vientiane, 1972

In 1955, the US Department of Defense created a special Programs Evaluation Office to replace French support of the Royal Lao Army against the communist Pathet Lao as part of the US containment policy.

In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions, fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army and the Pathet Lao. A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 proved to be unsuccessful, and the situation steadily deteriorated into large scale civil war between the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao. The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the NVA and Vietcong.

Laos was also dragged into the Vietnam War since parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam for use as a supply route for its war against the South. In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the North Vietnamese positions, supported regular and irregular anticommunist forces in Laos and supported South Vietnamese incursions into Laos.

In 1968 the North Vietnamese Army launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao to fight the Royal Lao Army. The attack resulted in the army largely demobilising, leaving the conflict to irregular forces raised by the United States and Thailand.

Massive aerial bombardment against Pathet Lao and invading NVA communist forces was carried out by the United States to prevent the collapse of Laos' central government, the Royal Kingdom of Laos, and to prevent the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail to attack US forces in South Vietnam and the Republic of Vietnam. As of 2008, Laos is the most heavily bombed country, per capita, in the world. An average of one B-52 bomb-load was dropped on Laos every eight minutes, 24 hours a day, between 1964 and 1973.[25] Due to the particularly heavily impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and assist victims, and hosted the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.[26]

In 1975 the Pathet Lao, along with the Vietnam People's Army and backed by the Soviet Union, overthrew the royalist Lao government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died in captivity. Between 20,000 and 70,000 Laotians died during the Civil War.[27][28][29][30]

On 2 December 1975, after taking control of the country, the Pathet Lao government under Kaysone Phomvihane renamed the country as the Lao People's Democratic Republic and signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. Laos was requested in 1979 by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam to end relations with the People's Republic of China, leading to isolation in trade by China, the United States, and other countries.

The conflict between Hmong rebels and the Vietnam People's Army of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), as well as the SRV-backed Pathet Lao continued in various pockets in key areas of Laos, including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone, Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province and Xieng Khouang Province. The government of Laos has been accused of committing genocide, human rights and religious freedom violations against the Hmong in collaboration with the Vietnamese army,[31][32][33] with up to 100,000 killed out of a population of 400,000.[34][35] From 1975 to 1996, the United States resettled some 250,000 Lao refugees from Thailand, including 130,000 Hmong.[36] (See: Indochina refugee crisis)

Geography[edit]

Main article: Geography of Laos

Mekong River flowing through Luang Prabang

Rice fields in Laos

Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia, and it lies mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (a small area is south of 14°), and longitudes 100° and 108°E. Its thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2,818 metres (9,245 ft), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand, whereas the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with the Thai highlands. There are two plateaux, the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end. The climate is tropical and influenced by the monsoon pattern.[37]

There is a distinct rainy season from May to November, followed by a dry season from December to April. Local tradition holds that there are three seasons (rainy, cold and hot) as the latter two months of the climatologically defined dry season are noticeably hotter than the earlier four months. The capital and largest city of Laos is Vientiane and other major cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse.[citation needed]

In 1993 the Laos government set aside 21% of the nation's land area for habitat conservation preservation.[38] The country is one of four in the opium poppy growing region known as the "Golden Triangle". According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia, the poppy cultivation area was 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), down from 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) in 2006.

Laos can be considered to consist of three geographical areas: north, central, and south.[39]

Administrative divisions[edit]

Main article: Administrative divisions of Laos

Laos is divided into 17 provinces (khoueng) and one prefecture (kampheng nakhon) which includes the capital city Vientiane (Nakhon Louang Viangchan). Provinces are further divided into districts (muang) and then villages (ban). An 'urban' village is essentially a town.[39]

№      Subdivisions       Capital       Area (km²) Population

1       Attapeu      Attapeu (Samakkhixay District)     10,320       114,300

2       Bokeo        Ban Houayxay (Houayxay District)        6,196         149,700

3       Bolikhamsai        Paksan (Paksane District)    14,863       214,900

4       Champasak        Pakse (Pakse District) 15,415       575,600

5       Hua Phan  Xam Neua (Xamneua District)      16,500       322,200

6       Khammouane    Thakhek (Thakhek District)  16,315       358,800

7       Luang Namtha   Luang Namtha (Namtha District)  9,325         150,100

8       Luang Prabang  Luang Prabang (Louangprabang District)      16,875       408,800

9       Oudomxay          Muang Xay (Xay District)     15,370       275,300

10     Phongsali  Phongsali (Phongsaly District)      16,270       199,900

11     Sayabouly Sayabouly (Xayabury District)       16,389       382,200

12     Salavan     Salavan (Salavan District)    10,691       336,600

13     Savannakhet      Savannakhet (Khanthabouly District)    21,774       721,500

14     Sekong      Sekong (Lamarm District)     7,665         83,600

15     Vientiane Capi.   Vientiane City     3,920         726,000

16     Vientiane Prov.   Phonhong (Phonhong District)      15,927       373,700

17     Xieng Khouang  Phonsavan (Pek District)      15,880       229,521

A clickable map of Laos exhibiting its provinces and prefecture.

 A clickable map of Laos exhibiting its provinces.

About this image

Environmental problems[edit]

Laos is increasingly suffering from environmental problems, with deforestation a particularly significant issue,[40] as expanding commercial exploitation of the forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demand for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population all create increasing pressure.

The United Nations Development Programme warns that: "Protecting the environment and sustainable use of natural resources in Lao PDR is vital for poverty reduction and economic growth."[41]

In April 2011, The Independent newspaper reported that Laos had started work on the controversial Xayaburi Dam on the Mekong River without getting formal approval. Environmentalists say the dam will adversely affect 60 million people and Cambodia and Vietnam—concerned about the flow of water further downstream—are officially opposed to the project. The Mekong River Commission, a regional intergovernmental body designed to promote the "sustainable management" of the river, famed for its giant catfish, carried out a study that warned if Xayaburi and subsequent schemes went ahead, it would "fundamentally undermine the abundance, productivity and diversity of the Mekong fish resources".[42] Neighbouring Vietnam warned that the dam would harm the Mekong Delta, which is the home to nearly 20 million people and supplies around 50% of Vietnam's rice output and over 70% of both its seafood and fruit outputs.[43]

Milton Osborne, Visiting Fellow at the Lowy Institute for International Policy who has written widely on the Mekong, warns: "The future scenario is of the Mekong ceasing to be a bounteous source of fish and guarantor of agricultural richness, with the great river below China becoming little more than a series of unproductive lakes." [44]

Illegal logging is also a major problem. Environmental groups estimate that 500,000 cubic metres (18,000,000 cu ft) of logs find their way from Laos to Vietnam every year, with most of the furniture eventually exported to western countries.[45]

A 1992 government survey indicated that forests occupied about 48% of Laos' land area. Forest coverage decreased to 41% in a 2002 survey. Lao authorities have said that, in reality, forest coverage might be no more than 35% because of various development projects such as dams, on top of the losses to illegal logging.[46]

Government and politics[edit]

Main articles: Politics of Laos and Foreign relations of Laos

Thongsing Thammavong

The Lao People's Democratic Republic, along with China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam is one of the world's five remaining socialist states. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The head of state is President Choummaly Sayasone, who is also the General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. The head of government is Prime Minister Thongsing Thammavong, who is also a senior member of the Politburo. Government policies are determined by the party through the all-powerful eleven-member Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party and the 61-member Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Important government decisions are vetted by the Council of Ministers. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam maintains significant influence over the Politburo of Laos and the one-party communist state apparatus and military[citation needed].

Laos's first, French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and declared Laos to be an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated on 3 December 1975, when a communist People's Republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP. In 1990, deputy minister for science & technology Thongsouk Saysangkhi resigned from the government and party, calling for political reform. He died in captivity in 1998.[47]

In 1992 elections were held for a new 85-seat National Assembly with members, nominated by the one-party communist government, elected by secret ballot to five-year terms. The elections were widely disputed and questioned by Lao and Hmong opposition and dissident groups abroad and in Laos and Thailand. This National Assembly, which essentially acts as a rubber stamp for the LPRP, approves all new laws, although the executive branch retains authority to issue binding decrees. The most recent elections took place in April 2011. The assembly was expanded to 99 members in 1997, to 115 members in 2006 and finally to 132 members during the 2011 elections.[citation needed]

Infrastructure[edit]

Rivers are an important means of transport in Laos

Main articles: Transport in Laos and Telecommunications in Laos

The main international airports are Vientiane's Wattay International Airport and Luang Prabang International Airport with Pakse International Airport also having a few international flights. The national airline is Lao Airlines. Other carriers serving the country include Bangkok Airways, Vietnam Airlines, AirAsia, Thai Airways International, and China Eastern Airlines.

Much of the country lacks adequate infrastructure. Laos has no railways, except a short link to connect Vientiane with Thailand over the Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge. A short portage railway, the Don Det—Don Khon narrow gauge railway was built by the French in Champasak Province but has been closed since the 1940s. In the late 1920s, work began on the Thakhek–Tan Ap railway that would have run between Thakhek, Khammouane Province and Tân Ấp Railway Station, Quảng Bình Province, Vietnam through the Mụ Giạ Pass. However, the scheme was aborted in the 1930s. The major roads connecting the major urban centres, in particular Route 13, have been significantly upgraded in recent years, but villages far from major roads can be reached only through unpaved roads that may not be accessible year-round.

There is limited external and internal telecommunication, but mobile phones have become widespread in urban centres. In many rural areas electricity is at least partly available. Songthaews (pick-up trucks with benches) are used in the country for long-distance and local public transport.

Wattay International Airport in Vientiane

Laos has made particularly noteworthy progress increasing access to sanitation and has already met its 2015 Millennium Development Goal (MDG) target.[48] Laos' predominantly rural (68%, source: Department of Statistics, Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2009) population makes investing in sanitation difficult. In 1990 only 8% of the rural population had access to improved sanitation.[48] Access rose rapidly from 10% in 1995 to 38% in 2008. Between 1995 and 2008 approximately 1,232,900 more people had access to improved sanitation in rural areas.[48] Laos' progress is notable in comparison to similar developing countries.[48] This success is in part due to small-scale independent providers emerging in a spontaneous manner or having been promoted by public authorities. The authorities in Laos have recently developed an innovative regulatory framework for Public–Private partnership contracts signed with small enterprises, in parallel with more conventional regulation of State-owned water enterprises.[49]

Military[edit]

Main article: Lao People's Army

The Lao People's Armed Forces (LPAF) is small, poorly funded, and ineffectively resourced; its mission focus is border and internal security, primarily in countering ethnic Hmong insurgent and opposition groups; with the Lao People's Revolutionary Party and the government, the Lao People's Army (LPA) is the third pillar of state machinery and, as such, is expected to suppress political and civil unrest and similar national emergencies. The LPA also has upgraded skills to respond to avian influenza outbreaks; there is no perceived external threat to the state and the LPA maintains strong ties with the neighbouring Vietnamese military (2008)[citation needed].

The army of 130,000 is equipped with 25 main battle tanks. The army marine section, equipped with 16 patrol crafts, has 600 personnel. The air force, with 3,500 personnel, is equipped with anti-aircraft missiles and 24 combat aircraft. Militia self-defence forces number approximately 100,000 organised for local defence. The small arms used by the army include the Soviet AKM assault rifle, PKM machine gun, Makarov PM pistol, and RPD light machine gun.

From its founding, until the present, the LPA receives significant support, training, advisers, troop support and assistance from the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnam People's Army.

On 17 May 2014 the Defense Minister, who was also Deputy Prime Minister, Major General Douangchay Phichit, along with other top ranking officials was killed in a plane crash in the north of the country. The officials were to participate in a ceremony to mark the liberation of the Plain of Jars from the former Royal Lao government forces. Their Russian-built Antonov AN 74-300 with 20 people on board crashed in Xiengkhouang province.[50]

Hmong conflict[edit]

The government of Laos has been accused of committing human rights violations and genocide against that country’s Hmong ethnic minority.[32]

Some Hmong groups fought as CIA-backed units on the Royalist side in the Laos civil war. After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets. In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the “American collaborators” and their families “to the last root”.[51]

As many as 200,000 Hmong went into exile in Thailand, with many ending up in the USA. A number of Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for many years, with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003.[51]

In 1989, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), with the support of the United States government, instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action, a programme to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Under the plan, the status of the refugees was to be evaluated through a screening process. Recognized asylum seekers were to be given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety.

Hmong girls in Laos in 1973

After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily.[52] Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced.[53] Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities.[54]

In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier who had been recruited by the US Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme's success, disappeared in Vientiane. According to the US Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again.

Following the Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified greatly, especially in the United States, where it drew strong opposition from many American conservatives and some human rights advocates. In a 23 October 1995 National Review article, Michael Johns, the former Heritage Foundation foreign policy expert and Republican White House aide, labelled the Hmong's repatriation a Clinton administration "betrayal", describing the Hmong as a people "who have spilled their blood in defense of American geopolitical interests."[55] Debate on the issue escalated quickly. In an effort to halt the planned repatriation, the Republican-led US Senate and House of Representatives both appropriated funds for the remaining Thailand-based Hmong to be immediately resettled in the United States; Clinton, however, responded by promising a veto of the legislation.

In their opposition of the repatriation plans, both Democrat and Republican Members of Congress also challenged the Clinton administration's position that the government of Laos was not systematically violating Hmong human rights. US Representative Steve Gunderson (R-WI), for instance, told a Hmong gathering: "I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth, but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice, I will do that."[55] Republicans also called several Congressional hearings on alleged persecution of the Hmong in Laos in an apparent attempt to generate further support for their opposition to the Hmong's repatriation to Laos. Democratic Congressman Bruce Vento, Senator Paul Wellstone, Dana Rohrabacher and others also raised concerns.

Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied,[56] thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996 as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process.[57] Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok, a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees had already been living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin.[58]

Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the United States, in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees in 2003.[59] Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the United States, fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century.[60]

In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun.[61] These Hmong refugees, many of whom are descendants of the former-CIA Secret Army and their relatives, claim that they have been attacked by both the Lao and Vietnamese military forces operating inside Laos as recently as June 2006. The refugees claim that attacks against them have continued almost unabated since the war officially ended in 1975, and have become more intense in recent years.

Lao war

Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary, Hunted Like Animals,[62] and in a comprehensive report which includes summaries of claims made by the refugees and was submitted to the UN in May 2006.[63]

The European Union,[64] UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation.[64][65][66][67] The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centres Nong Khai, while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United States.[68]

For the time being, countries willing to resettle the refugees are hindered to proceed with immigration and settlement procedures because the Thai administration does not grant them access to the refugees. Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the United States have been complicated by provisions of President George W. Bush's Patriot Act and Real ID Act, under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War, who fought on the side of the United States, are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict.

On 27 December 2009, the New York Times reported that the Thai military was preparing to forcibly return 4,000 Hmong asylum seekers to Laos by the end of the year:[69] the BBC later reported that repatriations had started.[70] Both United States and United Nations officials have protested this action. Outside government representatives have not been allowed to interview this group over the last three years. Médecins Sans Frontières has refused to assist the Hmong refugees because of what they have called "increasingly restrictive measures" taken by the Thai military.[71] The Thai military jammed all cellular phone reception and disallowed any foreign journalists from the Hmong camps.[70]

Human rights[edit]

Main article: Human rights in Laos

The Constitution that was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains most key safeguards for human rights. For example, Article 8 makes it clear that Laos is a multiethnic state and is committed to equality between ethnic groups. The Constitution also has provisions for gender equality and freedom of religion, for freedom of speech, press and assembly. On 25 September 2009, Laos ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, nine years after signing the treaty. The stated policy objectives of both the Lao government and international donors remain focused toward achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.[72][73] The government of Laos, however, frequently does not abide by its own constitution and the rule of law, since the judiciary and judges are appointed by the communist party in Laos, and there is no independent judicial branch. Human rights violations remain serious according to Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, The Centre for Public Policy Analysis and other independent human rights organisations and non-governmental organisations (NGOs).

However, Amnesty International has raised concerns about the ratification record of the Laos Government on human rights standards and its lack of co-operation with the UN human rights mechanisms and legislative measures which impact negatively on human rights. It has also raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression, poor prison conditions, restrictions on freedom of religions, protection of refugees and asylum-seekers and the death penalty.[74]

In October 1999, 30 young people were arrested for attempting to display posters calling for peaceful economic, political and social change in Laos. Five of them were arrested and subsequently sentenced to up to 10 years imprisonment on charges of treason. One has since died due to his treatment by prison guards, while one has been released. The surviving three men should have been released by October 2009, but their whereabouts remains unknown.[74]

Laos and Vietnamese (SRV) troops were reported to have raped and killed four Christian Hmong women in Xieng Khouang province in 2011, according to the US and Southeast-based non-governmental public policy research organisation The Centre for Public Policy Analysis. CPPA also said other Christian and independent Buddhist and animist believers were being persecuted.[75][76]

The Centre for Public Policy Analysis, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, US Commission on International Religious Freedom, the Lao Veterans of America, Inc. and other non-governmental organisations (NGO)s have reported egregious human rights violations, religious persecution, the arrest and imprisonment of political and religious dissidents as well as extrajudicial killings, in Laos by government military and security forces.[31] Human rights advocates including Vang Pobzeb, Kerry and Kay Danes and others have also raised concerns about human rights violations, torture, the arrest and detention of political prisoners as well as the detention of foreign prisoners in Laos including at the infamous Phonthong Prison in Vientiane. Concerns have also been raised about the high-profile abduction of Laotian civic activist Sombath Somphone in Laos by Lao security forces and police in December 2012.

Economy[edit]

Main article: Economy of Laos

About 80% of Laos population practices subsistence agriculture.

The Lao economy depends heavily on investment and trade with its neighbours, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China. Pakxe has also experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. In 2009, despite the fact that the government is still officially communist, the Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a marxist-leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export Import Bank.[77] In 2011, the Lao Securities Exchange began trading. In 2012, the government initiated the creation of the Laos Trade Portal, a website incorporating all information traders need to import and export goods into the country.

Subsistence agriculture still accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of employment. Only 4.01% of the country is arable land, and a mere 0.34% used as permanent crop land,[78] the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[79] Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of the arable land area used for growing rice.[80] Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice.[81]

Through the development, release and widespread adoption of improved rice varieties, and through economic reforms, production has increased by an annual rate of 5% between 1990 and 2005,[82] and Lao PDR achieved a net balance of rice imports and exports for the first time in 1999.[83] Lao PDR may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Since 1995 the Lao government has been working with the International Rice Research Institute of the Philippines to collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos.[84]

Morning market in Vientiane

The economy receives development aid from the IMF, ADB, and other international sources; and also foreign direct investment for development of the society, industry, hydropower and mining (most notably of copper and gold). Tourism is the fastest-growing industry in the country. Economic development in Laos has been hampered by brain drain, with a skilled emigration rate of 37.4% in 2000.[85]

Laos is rich in mineral resources and imports petroleum and gas. Metallurgy is an important industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the substantial deposits of coal, gold, bauxite, tin, copper, and other valuable metals. In addition, the country's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric energy. Of the potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for exporting to Thailand and Vietnam.[86]

The country's most widely recognised product may well be Beerlao which is exported to a number of countries including neighbours Cambodia and Vietnam. It is produced by the Lao Brewery Company.

Tourism[edit]

Main article: Tourism in Laos

View from near the sanctuary on the main upper level of Wat Phu, looking back towards the Mekong River

The tourism sector has grown rapidly, from 80,000 international visitors in 1990, to 1.876 million in 2010.[87] Tourism is expected to contribute US$679.1 million to gross national product in 2010, rising to US$1.5857 billion by 2020. In 2010, one in every 10.9 jobs was in the tourism sector. Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 15.5% of total exports or US$270.3 million in 2010, growing in nominal terms to US$484.2 million (12.5% of total) in 2020.[88]

Hmong girls on the Plain of Jars

The official tourism slogan is "Simply Beautiful". The main attractions for tourists include Buddhist culture and colonial architecture in Luang Prabang; gastronomy and ancient temples in the capital of Vientiane; backpacking in Muang Ngoi Neua and Vang Vieng; ancient and modern culture and history in The Plain of Jars region (main article: Phonsavan); Laos Civil War history in Sam Neua; trekking and visiting hill tribes in a number of areas including Phongsaly and Luang Namtha; spotting tigers and other wildlife in Nam Et-Phou Louey; caves and waterfalls near Thakhek; relaxation, the Irrawaddy dolphin and Khone Phapheng Falls at Si Phan Don or, as they are known in English, the Four Thousand Islands; Wat Phu, an ancient Khmer temple complex; and the Bolaven Plateau for waterfalls and coffee. The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded the country the "World Best Tourist Destination" designation for 2013 for this combination of architecture and history.[89]

Luang Prabang and Wat Phu are both UNESCO World Heritage sites, with the Plain of Jars expected to join them once more work to clear UXO has been completed. Major festivals include Laos New Year which is celebrated around 13–15 April and involves a water festival similar but more subdued than that of Thailand and other South-East Asian countries.

The Lao National Tourism Administration, related government agencies and the private sector are working together to realise the vision put forth in the country's National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan. This includes decreasing the environmental and cultural impact of tourism; increasing awareness in the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity; providing a source of income to conserve, sustain and manage the Lao protected area network and cultural heritage sites; and emphasising the need for tourism zoning and management plans for sites that will be developed as ecotourism destinations.[90]

Laos is known for its silk and local handicraft product, both of which are on display in Luang Prabang's night market, among other places. Another speciality is mulberry tea.

Demographics[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Laos

Buddhist monks collecting alms at dawn in Luang Prabang

The term "Laotian" does not necessarily refer to the Lao language, ethnic Lao people, language or customs, but is a political term that also includes the non-ethnic Lao groups within Laos and identifies them as "Laotian" because of their political citizenship. Laos has the youngest population of any country in Asia with a median age of 21.6 years.

Laos' population was estimated at 6.5 million in 2012, dispersed unevenly across the country. Most people live in valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries. Vientiane prefecture, the capital and largest city, had about 740,010 residents in 2008. The country's population density was 27/km2.[2]

Ethnicity[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Laos

The people of Laos are often considered by their altitudinal distribution (lowlands, midlands and upper high lands) as this approximates ethnic groups.

Lao Loum (lowland people)[edit]

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More than half of the nation's population, 60%, is ethnic Lao—the principal lowland inhabitants, and the politically and culturally dominant people of Laos. The Lao belong to the Tai linguistic group who began migrating southward from China in the first millennium AD. 10% belong to other "lowland" groups, which together with the Lao people make up the Lao Loum.

Lao Theung (midland people)[edit]

A Ho (Hani) woman and her child, Phongsaly Province

In the central and southern mountains, Mon-Khmer tribes, known as Lao Theung or mid-slope Laotians, predominate. Other terms are Khmu, Khamu (Kammu) or Kha as the Lao Loum refer to them as indicating their Austroasiatic origins. However, the latter is considered pejorative, meaning 'slave'. They were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos. Some Vietnamese, Chinese and Thai minorities remain, particularly in the towns, but many left after independence in the late 1940s, many of whom relocated either to Vietnam, Hong Kong, or to France. Lao Theung constitute about 30% of the population.[91]

Lao Soung (highland people)[edit]

Hill people and minority cultures of Laos such as the Hmong, Yao (Mien), Dao, Shan, and several Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for many years. Mountain/hill tribes of mixed ethno/cultural-linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos which include the Lua and Khmu people who are indigenous to Laos. Today, the Lua people are considered endangered. Collectively, they are known as Lao Soung or highland Laotians. Lao Soung account for only about 10% of the population.[92]

Leaders of ethnic minorities in Laos[edit]

Ong Keo

Ong Kommadam

Pa Chay Vue

Languages[edit]

Buddhist Monks in front of Wat Sen, Luang Prabang

Buddhist shrine in Vientiane

The official and dominant language is Lao, a tonal language of the Tai linguistic group. However, only slightly more than half of the population can speak Lao, the remainder speaking various ethnic minority languages, particularly in rural areas. The written language is based on Khmer writing script. Languages like Khmu and Hmong are spoken by minorities, particularly in the midland and highland areas. A number of Laotian sign languages are used in areas with high rates of congenital deafness.

French is still commonly used in government and commerce and over a third of Laos' students are educated through the medium of French with French being compulsory for all other students. Throughout the country signage is bilingual in Laotian and French, with French being predominant. English, the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has become increasingly studied in recent years.[93]

Health[edit]

Main article: Health in Laos

Male life expectancy at birth was at 60.85 and female life expectancy was at 64.76 in 2012.[1] Healthy life expectancy was at 54 in 2007.[94] In 2008, 43% of the population did not have access to an improved water resource, by 2010 this had been reduced to 33% of the population.[1] Government expenditure on health is at about 4% of the GDP.[94] Its amount was at US$18 (PPP) in 2006.[94]

Religion[edit]

Main article: Religion in Laos

Of the people of Laos 67% are Theravada Buddhist, 1.5% are Christian, and 31.5% are other or unspecified (mostly practitioners of Satsana Phi)[95] according to the 2005 census.[1] Buddhism has long been one of the most important social forces in Laos. Theravada Buddhism has coexisted peacefully since its introduction to the country with the local polytheism.

Education[edit]

Main article: Education in Laos

The adult literacy rate exceeds two thirds.[96] The male literacy rate exceeds the female literacy rate.[94] In 2004 the net primary enrolment rate was at 84%.[94] The National University of Laos is the Laos state's public university. The total literacy rate is 73% (2010 estimate).

Culture[edit]

Main article: Culture of Laos

See also: Lao art, Lao cuisine, Dance and theatre of Laos, List of festivals in Laos and Music of Laos

An example of Lao cuisine

Lao women wearing sinhs.

Lao dancers during New Year

Theravada Buddhism is a dominant influence in Lao culture. It is reflected throughout the country from language to the temple and in art, literature, performing arts, etc. Many elements of Lao culture predate Buddhism, however. For example, Laotian music is dominated by its national instrument, the khaen, a type of bamboo pipe that has prehistoric origins. The khaen traditionally accompanied the singer in lam, the dominant style of folk music. Among the various lam styles, the lam saravane is probably the most popular.

Sticky Rice is a characteristic staple food and has cultural and religious significance to the Lao people. Sticky rice is generally preferred over jasmine rice, and sticky rice cultivation and production is thought to have originated in Laos. There are many traditions and rituals associated with rice production in different environments, and among many ethnic groups. For example, Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice variety Khao Kam in small quantities near the hut in memory of dead parents, or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are still alive.[97]

Sinh is a traditional garment worn by Laotian women in daily life. It is a hand-woven silk skirt which can identify the woman who wears it in a variety of ways. In particular, it can indicate which region the wearer is from.

Marriage[edit]

Polygamy is officially a crime in Laos, though the penalty is minor. The constitution and Family Code bars the legal recognition of polygamous marriages, stipulating that monogamy is to be the principal way to contract a marriage in the country. Polygamy, however, is still customary among some Hmong people.[98]

Media[edit]

All newspapers are published by the government, including two foreign language papers: the English-language daily Vientiane Times and the French-language weekly Le Rénovateur. Additionally, the Khao San Pathet Lao, the country's official news agency, publishes English and French versions of its eponymous paper. Laos currently has nine daily newspapers, 90 magazines, 43 radio stations, and 32 TV stations operating throughout the country.[citation needed] As of 2011, Nhân Dân (The People) and the Xinhua News Agency are the only foreign media organisations permitted to open offices in Laos—both opened bureaus in Vientiane in 2011.[citation needed]

The Lao government heavily controls all media channels to prevent critique of its actions. Lao citizens who have criticised the government have been subjected to enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and torture.[99][100]

Internet cafes are now common in the major urban centres and are especially popular with the younger generation.

Since the founding of the Lao PDR only very few films have been made in Laos. One of the first commercial feature length films was the 2008 Sabaidee Luang Prabang.[101] Australian filmmaker Kim Mordount's first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language. Entitled The Rocket, the film appeared at the 2013 Melbourne International Film Festival (MIFF) and won three awards at the Berlin International Film Festival.[102] Recently a few local production companies have succeeded to produce Lao feature films and gain international recognition. Among them are Lao New Wave Cinema's "At The Horizon" directed by Anysay Keola, that was screened at the OzAsia Film Festival[103] and Lao Art Media's Chanthaly directed by Mattie Do, which was screened at the 2013 Fantastic Fest.[104][105]

Sport[edit]

The largest Stadium in Laos, New Laos National Stadium.

The martial art of Muay Lao, the national sport,[citation needed] is a form of kickboxing similar to other styles of Southeast Asia such as Thai Muay Thai, Burmese Lethwei, Malaysian Tomoi, and Cambodian Pradal Serey.

Association football has grown to be the most popular sport in Laos. The Lao League is now the top professional league for association football clubs in the country. Since the start of the League, Lao Army FC has been the most successful club with 8 titles, the highest number of championship wins. (Continoe)